Since man is a social being, the development of his consciousness is impossible without interaction and communication with other people.

Human consciousness is formed in the process of interpersonal communication and joint activities of people. The word “communication” itself, by its etymology, implies the presence of a certain common system transfer of information from person to person. In the process of phylogenesis, such a system was formed - human speech. It is thanks to speech that the content of one person’s consciousness becomes accessible to other people.

Psychology reviews speech , first of all, as one of the highest mental functions of a person, in the entire range of its relationships with other mental functions - thinking, emotions, memory, etc. In the context of the activity approach, domestic psychology considers speech as speech activity . She speaks:

In the form of a holistic act of activity, if it has its own motivation, which cannot be realized by any other types of activity

In the form of separate speech actions accompanying any other human activity. An example for comparison is the speech of a person talking on the phone for the sake of actual communication and the speech of a train dispatcher in the process of coordinating the movement of many trains.

Structure of speech activity coincides with the structure of any other activity. It includes motivation, planning, implementation and control. Unlike objective activity, here these phases can be very compressed in time. Sometimes, in situations of emotional arousal, the planning phase of speech activity is practically absent. This is what they say about such cases: “First he said, and then he thought.”

Speech is directly related to language, which is a tool for its mediation. It is a system of signs that convey information verbally and in writing. Language is means of communication And abstract thinking. For oral speech, language is words and ways of forming them. For writing - the rules for combining words into phrases and sentences, combining sentences into complex sentences, types of phrases and sentences, as well as punctuation and spelling - the systems that form spelling.

The word as a sign that determines human communication and thinking has such an objective property as meaning, that is, a relationship to an object designated in reality, regardless of how it is represented in the mind of the subject. In addition to its objective meaning, the word has a personal meaning. It is determined by the place a given object or phenomenon occupies in a person’s life and consciousness, as well as by the person’s attitude towards this object. Thus, words are a fusion of sensory and semantic (semantic) content.

A special branch of psychology deals with the study of the process of functioning of an individual system of meanings - psychosemantics.

Based on the above, we can summarize - language has three main functions. Firstly, it is a means of communication, secondly, a means of accumulating, transmitting and assimilating socio-historical experience, thirdly, language is a tool of intellectual activity and, in general, the functioning of basic mental processes: perception, memory, thinking, imagination.

Performing the first function, language allows the subject of communication to have a direct or indirect impact on the behavior and activities of the interlocutor. Direct influence is carried out when the interlocutor is directly told what he must do, indirect - when he is given the information necessary for his activities. The second function is due to the fact that language serves as a means of encoding information about the studied properties of objects and phenomena. Through language, information about the world around us and man himself, received by previous generations, becomes the property of subsequent generations. The third function is due to the fact that it is through language that a person carries out any conscious mental activity.

Speech and language are interpenetrating systems. They are both one and different at the same time. They are two aspects of a single process. Speech is the activity of communication - the transmission of objective or subjective information. Thus, speech is language in action. Languages ​​that are not used in spoken language are called dead (for example, Latin).

It should be noted an interesting feature of the anatomical and physiological basis of language and speech. Speech has central and peripheral apparatuses. Peripheral apparatuses – larynx, tongue (in the anatomical sense), vocal cords. In humans, they are developed so much that they can not only pronounce words, but also give them different intonations, different expressions, etc.

Well, the central organs, or “speech centers,” are an even more mysterious thing. Among peoples who build their speech on the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic and similar writing systems, the sections of the left, “rational” hemisphere of the brain are responsible for speech. And among peoples whose writing is hieroglyphs, the language is “managed” by the right, “figurative” hemisphere. This phenomenon is remarkable and has not yet been fully studied by psychologists.

1. Significative(or nominative). This is the function of “naming”; its essence is to give names, to designate objects of both the surrounding reality and internal processes inherent in a person. Thus, mutual understanding in the process of human communication is based on the unity of designation of objects and phenomena by both the speaker and the recipient of speech. In this way, human communication differs from the communication of animals, which do not have a notation system, as well as abstract thinking. Their communication occurs at the level of sound or other signals that directly affect reflexes.

One more feature of the significative function should also be noted. It is this that determines the fact that people understand each other, despite the diversity of languages, because the essence of signification (designation) is the same for all people.

2. Generalization function. It consists in isolating the essential characteristics of objects and combining them into groups, since a word denotes not only a single, given object, but a whole group of similar objects, and is always the bearer of their essential characteristics. This function directly related to thinking.

3. Communicative function ensures the transfer of knowledge, relationships, feelings and is accordingly divided into informational, willful And expressive. This function acts primarily as external speech behavior aimed at contacts with other people, or written speech (books, letters, etc.). This distinguishes it from the first two functions, which are related to internal mental processes.

Informational the aspect of the communicative function is closely related to the first two functions - it manifests itself in the exchange of information between the subjects of communication.

Expressive aspect of speech helps to convey the feelings and attitudes of the speaker both to the message being conveyed and to the interlocutor or audience himself.

Volitional aspect of the communicative function is the ability, with the help of speech activity, to influence the interlocutor or audience, as a result of which the latter perceive the opinion, attitude of the speaker, and to a certain extent obey his will. It is about people endowed with strong volitional ability that they are usually said to be endowed with charisma.

Let's consider types of speech and them distinctive features. There are different types of speech: speech gestures and sound speech, written and oral, external and internal. The main division is internal and external speech.

External speech is divided into written and oral. Oral speech, in turn, includes monologue and dialogic speech.

Inner speech is not aimed at direct communication between a person and other people. This is silent speech, proceeding more like a thought process. There are two varieties of it: actual inner speech And inner speaking. Pronunciation is a fully developed speech. This is simply a mental repetition of some texts (for example, the text of an upcoming report, a speech, a poem memorized by heart, etc., in conditions where such repetition out loud is inconvenient).

Inner speech itself is curtailed. It is more like a summary containing the main, meaningful parts of a sentence (sometimes it is only one predicate or subject). Inner speech is the basis for planning both practical and theoretical activities. Therefore, despite its fragmentation and fragmentation, it excludes inaccuracies in the perception of the situation. Ontogenetically, internal speech is the internalization of external speech and serves as the basis for the development of verbal-logical thinking.

External speech It happens oral And written. Oral speech is primarily auditory. But the meaning of gestures cannot be excluded. They can accompany sound speech and act as independent signs. In this case, we do not mean sign language as a separate independent language and a full-fledged communication system. We're talking about gesturing in the everyday sense. Individual gestures can be the equivalent of words and sometimes even convey quite complex meanings in conditions where auditory speech cannot be used. Communication using gestures and facial expressions refers to a non-verbal type of communication, in contrast to verbal (verbal). Sign language is varied. IN different countries the same gesture can have different meanings. In any of its manifestations, oral speech is, as a rule, a speech-conversation, direct contact with an interlocutor or audience.

Written speech has a different function. It is often designed to convey more abstract content that is not related to a specific situation and a specific interlocutor. Although it should be noted that time makes its own adjustments - the epistolary genre is dying out, but network communication is developing powerfully.

As already mentioned, oral speech It has two forms.

More common dialogic form. Dialogue by definition is direct communication between two or more people, the exchange of meaningful remarks and information of a cognitive or emotional nature between its participants. Dialogue speech differs in that it is speech supported by the interlocutors, it can include questions, answers, and can respond to changes in the situation.

Monologue speech- a completely different manifestation of oral speech. Here there is a relatively long sequential presentation of a certain system of thoughts and knowledge by one person. Giving a lecture to a large audience (when there is no direct contact between the lecturer and the audience) is a typical example. Or an actor’s monologue, which is not interrupted by either the partners’ remarks or, of course, questions from the audience. Monologue speech also implies communication, but this communication is of a completely different nature. For example, incorrect construction of phrases is unacceptable for a monologue. In addition, there are special requirements to the tempo of speech, the volume of its sound, and intelligibility. The meaningful aspect of a monologue must be combined with its expressiveness, which is achieved by linguistic means, facial expressions, gestures, and voice intonations.

Returning to the characteristics of written speech, it should be noted that it is based on monologue speech, since it lacks direct Feedback with your interlocutor. But unlike monologue oral speech, written speech is very limited in the means of expression, so the main aspects in it are the content side and literacy of presentation.

In addition to the listed types of speech, some psychologists also distinguish active speech And passive. They can exist in both oral and written form. Active speech is a process of transmitting information. The activity itself lies in the need for speech production. Passive speech is the process of perceiving information contained in someone’s active speech. This can be listening, adequate understanding, and in the case of perception of written speech, reading, repeating to oneself.

Speech activity is determined by motives and goals, consists of leading and background levels, includes the image of the result and the regulation of intermediate stages.

Speech activity as one of the types of human activity is characterized by purposefulness and consists of several successive stages: orientation, planning (in the form of internal programming), implementation and control. In accordance with these stages, each individual speech action is carried out.

The starting point of any speech act is a speech situation, that is, a combination of circumstances that prompts a person to speak, for example, the need to answer a question, make a report on the results of work, write a letter, talk with a friend, etc. The following phases are distinguished in the implementation of speech action:

1. Preparing a statement. The beginning of the act of speech activity is the awareness of the motives, needs and goals of entering into communication. Next, a probabilistic prediction of the results of the statement is carried out based on past experience and taking into account the situation. In a verbally developed person with quick reactions, these preparatory actions proceed at high speed on a subconscious level and culminate in the creation of an internal plan of utterance, which can have varying degrees of generalization.

2. Structuring the statement. The content of this phase is the choice of words, their arrangement in the desired sequence and grammatical design. These operations, carried out in operational speech memory, are accompanied by an assessment of the created utterance and its correction at the internal level.

3. Transition to external speech. A sound or graphic design of the statement is carried out. This is the most important phase of speech action; it consists of the transition from internal to external speech. Errors in such a transition make speech in the eyes of others incomplete, incoherent, and difficult to understand (Goykhman O.Ya., Nadeina T.M. Speech communication. M.: INFRA-M, 2001, pp. 10-11).

2. Types and forms of speech

There are two forms of speech:

oral speech;

written speech.

Oral speech is speech produced in the process of speaking; the main form of using natural language in speech activity.

For the colloquial style of a literary language, the oral form is the main one, while book styles function in both written and oral form (a scientific article and an oral scientific report, a speech at a meeting without a previously prepared text and a recording of this speech in the minutes of the meeting).

The most important distinguishing feature of oral speech is its unpreparedness: oral speech, as a rule, is created during a conversation. However, the degree of unpreparedness may vary. This may be a speech on a topic unknown in advance, carried out as improvisation. On the other hand, it can be a speech on a previously known topic, thought out in certain parts. Oral speech of this kind is typical for official public communication. From oral speech, i.e. speech generated in the process of speaking, one should distinguish between speech read and learned by heart; for this type of speech the term "sounding speech" is sometimes used.

The unprepared nature of oral speech gives rise to a number of its specific features:

an abundance of unfinished syntactic constructions (for example: Well, in general...contemplation... I can draw for friends too);

self-interrupting (There are still many people in Russia who want... who write with a pen and not on a computer);

repetitions (I would... I would... like to say more);

constructions with nominative themes (This boy / he wakes me up every morning);

pick-ups (A - We invite you... B - tomorrow to the theater).

(Zemskaya E.A. Oral speech. // Russian language. Encyclopedia, M.: BRE-Drofa, 1997, pp. 582-583).

The specific features caused by unprepared oral speech mentioned above are not speech errors, because do not interfere with understanding the content of speech, and in some cases serve as an important means of expression. Moreover, speech designed for direct perception, which is oral speech, loses if it is too detailed, consists exclusively of detailed sentences, if direct word order predominates in it.

In a speech intended for a listener, the structural and logical pattern of a phrase often changes, incomplete sentences are very appropriate (saving the energy and time of the speaker and listener), incidental additional thoughts and evaluative phrases are allowed (enriching the text and being well separated from the main text through intonation).

One of the most significant disadvantages of oral speech is considered to be its intermittency (logical, grammatical and intonation), which consists in unjustified stopping of speech, breaking off phrases, thoughts, and sometimes unjustified repetition of the same words. The reasons for this are different: ignorance of what to say, inability to formulate the subsequent thought, the desire to correct what was said.

The second of the most common shortcomings of oral speech is its lack of differentiation (intonation and grammatical): phrases follow one after another without pauses, logical stresses, without clear grammatical design of sentences. Grammar and intonation confusion naturally affects the logic of speech: thoughts merge, the order of their occurrence becomes unclear, the content of the text becomes vague and indefinite. Written speech is speech created using visible (graphic) signs on paper, other material, or a monitor screen. The written form of speech is the main one for official business and scientific styles of speech, for the language of fiction. The journalistic style uses equally written and oral forms of speech (periodicals and television).

The use of written form allows you to think about your speech longer, build it gradually, correcting and supplementing, which ultimately contributes to the development and use of more complex syntactic structures than is typical for oral speech. Such features of oral speech as repetitions and unfinished constructions would be stylistic errors in a written text.

If in oral speech intonation is used as a means of semantically highlighting parts of a statement, then in writing punctuation marks are used, as well as various means of graphically highlighting words, combinations and parts of text: using a different type of font, bold font, italics, underlining, framing, placing text on page. These tools ensure the selection of logically important parts of the text and the expressiveness of written speech.

The types of speech are:

speaking - sending sound signals carrying information;

listening - perception of sound signals and their understanding;

writing - the use of visible graphic symbols to convey a message;

reading - perception of graphic symbols and their understanding.

Improving speaking skills includes increasing readiness to maintain a conversation on various topics and mastering speaking techniques.

In order to be ready to maintain a conversation on various topics in public and private communication, a person needs to constantly engage in self-education in the broad sense of the word, i.e. acquire new knowledge, not only in one’s specialty, but also other knowledge in the field of science and art that is of public interest, develop independent thinking, trying to give one’s own assessment of the information received from books and newspapers, read fiction in order to better understand life and improve the style of your speech.

The main elements of speech technique are:

diction (degree of clarity of pronunciation).

Proper organization of speech breathing is of great importance for oral speech. Interrupted, choking speech does not make a favorable impression and sometimes even irritates listeners. In addition, improper speech breathing tires the speaker.

The human voice is of great importance for oral speech. This is an individual characteristic of a person, as unique as fingerprints. In the physical sense, the voice is understood as a set of sounds varying in pitch, strength and timbre, arising as a result of vibrations of the vocal cords.

The ability to control one's voice is important not only for a speaker, but for any person whose profession requires constant communication with people. In personal communication, having a voice also turns out to be a positive quality of a person. The necessary qualities of a good voice are: beautiful timbre, strength, flight, endurance, large range.

exercises that teach you to correctly direct the sound without straining;

It is important to find the natural pitch of the voice, which is usually in the middle register of a person and at which the voice sounds good. Then it is necessary to improve the sound quality in other registers by performing breathing exercises simultaneously with sound ones.

Diction includes three main indicators:

correct articulation;

degree of clarity of articulation;

way of pronouncing words.

Correct articulation is such movements of the organs of articulation that correspond to the desired place and method of sound formation.

The degree of clarity of articulation is an indicator of the intelligibility of oral speech. Moreover, clear articulation creates the impression that a person is confident in himself and knows what he is talking about, which is one of the tasks of oral communication.

The manner of pronouncing words includes the rate of speech characteristic of each individual, prolongation or reduction of syllables, and special modifications of intonation.

To improve speech skills regarding the manner of pronouncing words, it is necessary to constantly listen and try to accurately reproduce standard speech in full or neutral styles. Unfortunately, examples of such speech can now rarely be heard even on radio and television; this is mainly the speech of people who have undergone special training - professional announcers and actors.

The sound side of oral speech plays no less important role than its content. It is known that a speech that is brilliant in content loses in many respects if it is delivered sluggishly and inexpressively, with hesitations and speech errors. Conversely, a speech of little content, delivered phonetically flawlessly, can make a favorable impression. This comparison, of course, is not advice to prepare speeches with little content, it only shows the significance of the role played by good sounding of oral speech.

The success of communication depends not only on the ability to speak, but also no less on the ability to listen.

Listening is an integral part of the communication process and includes two stages:

stage of primary analysis of the sound signal and its psychomechanical processing;

stage of semantic interpretation.

Scientists have discovered a significant gap between the amount of information expressed by a speaker, speaker, or participant in a regular conversation and the amount of information perceived by listeners. It has been experimentally established that when perceiving speech by ear, a person on average reaches only a 25% level of efficiency in 10 minutes. Even in informal conversations, the listener absorbs on average no more than 60-70% of what the interlocutor says.

The reason for this gap is a number of typical listening deficiencies:

thoughtless perception, when the sound of speech is only a background for some activity;

fragmentary perception, when only individual parts of spoken speech are interpreted;

narrowness of perception, i.e. inability to critically analyze the content of a message and establish a connection between it and the facts of reality.

In order to develop effective listening skills, you need to be able to answer the following questions for yourself:

Why is it necessary to listen?

What are the factors for effective listening?

How to listen?

1. Why is it necessary to listen? This question helps to assess the usefulness that can be gained from listening to a lecture, oral presentation, television program, or speech of an interlocutor.

You may find it useful:

Receiving the information. This is the main purpose of listening in professional activities, but useful information can be gleaned not only from lectures and speeches at production meetings, but also from everyday conversations.

Entertainment. This is one of the important human needs. The purpose of entertainment is present in ordinary conversations and in listening to some television programs.

Inspiration. Often a person listens not to learn facts, but to be inspired. This is also one of the human needs.

Analysis of facts and ideas. Necessary for a more complete perception of speech and the inclusion of the received information in the structure of existing experience and knowledge.

Improving your own speech. Observing the speech of others teaches a person to be more attentive to his own speech.

2. Factors for effective listening are:

Attitude of listeners. For successful communication, an objective, unbiased, cooperative attitude of listeners is necessary. Overconfident people are usually poor listeners. An educated person is usually more attentive than an uneducated person. Poorly educated people become passive listeners, because... they have little knowledge with which to compare the speaker's words.

Listener interest. It has been observed that people show more interest in familiar things than unfamiliar ones, and are also interested in practically useful and new ideas. Therefore, the speaker in his speech should show enthusiasm, talk about exciting and specific things, and use the language of action.

Motivation of listeners. The attention of listeners is enhanced if the speech touches on issues related to the basic life needs and feelings of a person. Such motives are self-preservation, interest in property, desire to expand influence, concern for reputation, affection, sentimentality, taste.

Emotional condition. Unwanted emotions that interfere with continuous attention can come from the listener's state of depression, his attitude towards the speaker, his objections to the speaker's statements.

3. How to listen?

For listening to be beneficial, you need to develop the following skills:

1) ability to concentrate;

2) the ability to analyze content;

3) the ability to listen critically;

4) ability to take notes.

The ability to concentrate allows you to constantly monitor the progress of the presentation of thoughts and all the details of what is being communicated. This skill involves the following techniques:

Take an objective and cooperative position towards the speaker.

Remember what you already know about the subject of speech.

Think about the topic and try to guess how the speaker will develop it.

Think about how the content of the speech can help you.

The ability to analyze content is necessary, first of all, for listening to public speeches, because they contain different ideas, and if one of them is missed, the connection between parts of the text will be broken. The ability to analyze is based on the following techniques:

determining the purpose of speech;

definition of speech composition;

determining the main topic of the speech;

determining the main ideas of the speaker;

definition of forms of argumentation;

determining the forms of summarization and final conclusions.

Critical listening skills can be developed by doing the following:

Relate what the speaker says to your own experiences. You can agree with the speaker, postpone a decision until further information is received, or question the speaker’s words.

Summarize and organize what you heard. Stay ahead of the speaker and try to predict how he will develop the main topic.

Analyze and evaluate what you hear. Correlate the speaker’s statements with reality, with each other and with the goals of speech.

The ability to take notes is required in cases where it is important for the listener to keep a record of a lecture, report, or speech. When taking notes, it is recommended to adhere to the following principles:

Use short sentences and paragraphs.

Write down only important points and factual material.

Use abbreviations and symbols.

Take legible notes.

Emphasize important ideas.

Review your posts periodically.

<Совершенствование навыков письма возможно на основе постоянной тренировки в составлении письменных тех жанров, которые необходимы человеку в работе. Развитию навыков письменной речи помогает чтение художественной литературы, хороших произведений публицистического стиля, научной литературы. Для составления официально-деловых текстов необходимо ознакомиться с соответствующими нормативными актами и образцами документов. В последнее время в помощь юристам изданы сборники образцов документов (следственных, судебных, нотариальных).

Reading skills vary from person to person. Sometimes school graduates read quickly enough, but ineffectively, quickly forgetting the content of what they read. Developing reading skills helps you process more information and save time.

At the stage of visual perception of text, an important role is played by:

gaze fixation - stopping the eyes for a split second when perceiving what is written;

eye movement - moving the gaze from one section of text to another;

field of view - a section of text that is clearly perceived by the eyes during one fixation of the gaze.

Typical reading deficiencies are:

Regressions, i.e. unjustified, mechanical returns to what has already been read, slowing down the reading process.

Articulation, i.e. internal pronunciation of the text being read, slowing down the reading speed by 3-4 times.

Small field of view. When 2-3 words are perceived in one fixation of gaze, the eyes have to make many stops. The wider the field of view, the more information is perceived each time the eyes stop. A person trained in reading techniques can perceive an entire line, and sometimes even a paragraph, in one fixation of his gaze.

Poor development of the semantic prediction mechanism. The ability to predict what is written and make semantic guesses is necessary to improve reading efficiency.

Low level of attention organization. The reading speed of most readers is much lower than what they could achieve without compromising their comprehension if they could control their attention. In a slow reader, attention quickly switches to extraneous thoughts and objects, so interest in the text decreases.

Lack of flexible reading strategy. Often people, when starting to read, do not set any goals for themselves and do not use the rules of text processing. In fact, depending on the purpose of reading, you can choose such methods as reading-viewing, introductory reading, in-depth reading.

Speech – the process of transmitting information through language. Language – a system of signs and rules for their use that has developed in social history. This system of signs is studied by linguistics.

Speech is a mental process. As a mental process, it is the process of formulating and communicating thoughts through language. It is studied by psycholinguistics.

Speech as a mental activity has two forms of manifestation:

1) transfer of information in communication (speaking and listening or writing and reading).

2) the use of speech as a means of thinking.

The main types of speech activities are listening (listening), speaking, writing and reading.

Listening – leading speech process. In it, the formation of perceptual standards occurs, on the basis of which a person distinguishes sound complexes and correlates objects and phenomena of the surrounding world with them. The purpose of listening is to understand speech, which depends on the acoustic and psycholinguistic characteristics of speech.

TO acoustic characteristics relate:

Speech intensity

Presence of interference

Availability of passes

Presence of distortion

Presence of unfamiliar symbols.

TO psycholinguistic characteristics relate:

Knowledge of the language spoken

Speaking pace

Listener position

Interest and attentiveness.

Research shows that 80% of people listen with great loss of information. Losses range from 70 to 80%. This suggests that people either listen without paying attention or do not want to listen. Therefore, it is recommended to master active listening techniques. Mastering these techniques is especially important for those people for whose activities speech is of great importance.

Speaking - the generation of a speech utterance. It is of great importance in human-to-human professions. Speaking accounts for 30% of speech time. Speech is characterized by variety, accuracy, correctness, logic, situational appropriateness, and intonational expressiveness.

Reading – perception of written speech. It allows you to assimilate various information that a person needs in various areas of his activity. Reading is a later process in relation to the first and second types of speech activity. Not everyone can read and not to the same extent. Text as an object of reading is characterized by ease of understanding and assimilation, that is, readability. It depends on the length of words, sentences, frequency of occurrence of words, and the degree of abstraction of the words used. The sentence length should be about 11 words. An important reading characteristic is speed:

200 words per minute is low speed

250 – 300 words per minute – average speed

300 – 450 words per minute – fast speed

450 or more words per minute - ultra-fast speed.

Written speech can be an epistolary, journalistic, artistic and scientific text. An artistic text can take the form of a story, feuilleton, essay, play, poem, novel, etc., a scientific text can take the form of an article, thesis, dissertation, monograph. Scientific texts must be written in accordance with certain requirements for them. Epistolary and literary texts are especially important for practical psychology. Analysis of their content can be a valuable source of information about the personality of the author. The graphic features of the letter can also provide valuable information about the writer. The characteristics of the writer's mental state and personality are associated with the characteristics of handwriting. However, in our time, technical devices are replacing the pen, and typing is carried out using a keyboard, which makes graphological analysis of writing impossible.

Types of speech.

Human speech can be external and internal.

External speech- speech spoken out loud, addressed to another person or to oneself. It is most often used in communication with other people.

Inner speech- a speech spoken to oneself. It acts as a means of thinking and managing one’s own behavior.

External speech is divided into oral and written. Oral speech includes the following types of speech.

1, Vexclamation- not so much speech as an affective reaction that occurs in response to unexpected events. It appears earlier than everyone else and disappears later than everyone else (children, old people).

2. Dilogical speech– at least two people participate. It can have two forms of manifestation:

May represent a reaction to messages received from a partner (the result of the dialogue is unpredictable).

A voluntarily controlled process of communication, subordinated to a specific motive and a specific goal.

Communicators know the communication situation.

Communicators can use non-verbal means of communication.

The last two points determine the possibility of grammatical incompleteness in dialogical speech, since the meaning of the utterance is clear to the communicants from the context and from non-verbal signals.

3Monological speech– is a narrative by one person on a given topic. Its main features are the presence of a motive for the statement and a general intention of the speaker. These two circumstances determine the psychological features of the statement, which are as follows:

A statement is a set of semantic groups united by a common concept.

The speaking program should prevent listeners from being distracted from the narrative

It eliminates multiple repetitions.

4. Pwritten speech– appears in the form of a report, message, narrative. It is speech without a really present interlocutor, although it addresses a specific addressee. Must take into account the characteristics of this addressee. The motive for written speech is determined by the subject himself. Written speech does not have non-verbal means of expression and occurs outside of a specific communication situation or activity. Therefore, it makes full use of grammatical means.

Functions of speech.

1. The significative function is that with the help of a word, speech, something is denoted - an object, its properties, states, function, etc. Communication is possible when those communicating have the same understanding of the meaning of the same sign.

2. Intelligent function. It lies in the fact that speech is a means of thinking. Speech is used primarily in verbal and logical thinking. However, other types of thinking also involve the use of speech. The action of this function is expressed in the ability to accurately describe the situation, compactly express one’s thoughts, quickly grasp the partner’s thought, and anticipate the development of the topic of conversation.

3. The communicative function is that speech is a means of communication. This is the main function of speech. With the help of speech, a person expresses his thoughts, feelings, will, that is, he shares information, encourages a partner to take certain actions, restrains him from unwanted actions and shares his feelings with him.

4. The expressive function is that in speech a person expresses his attitude to the communicated content, to his partner, and also expresses his emotional state. This function is the earliest and is manifested in the first cry of the child and is present until death. The ability to control the expressive function of speech is a professionally important quality in professions such as “person to person”.

PSYCHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF SPEECH ACTIVITY

So, direct comparison of simplified psychological schemes and complex linguistic formations with certain areas of the cerebral cortex has not justified itself either theoretically or practically. The way out of the emerging impasse was associated with obtaining fairly clear ideas about the psychological structure of speech processes and their individual links, on the one hand, and finding the physiological conditions necessary for the normal organization of complex speech structures, on the other.

Let us dwell on each of these conditions in more detail, then move on to the question of the cerebral organization of speech activity.

Modern psychology considers speech as a means of communication, i.e. as a complex and specifically organized form of conscious activity in which the subject formulating a speech utterance, on the one hand, and the subject perceiving it, on the other, participate.

On the one hand, this is expressive speech, starting with the motive of the statement, a general thought, which is then encoded with the help of internal speech into speech patterns that are transformed into expanded speech based on “generative” or “generative” grammar.

On the other hand, this is impressive speech, making the opposite way - from perceiving the flow of someone else's speech and decoding it through analysis, isolating essential elements and reducing the perceived speech utterance to some speech pattern, which is further transformed through internal speech into a statement, a general thought, with a hidden there is subtext in it. This complex path ends with decoding the motive behind the utterance. It is obvious that such speech activity (both expressive and impressive) is a complex psychological formation. The characteristics of speech activity as a special form of communication indicate only one side of this process. In addition, speech is a tool of thinking and, finally, a means of regulating (organizing) a person’s own mental processes.

Through words and sentences (syntagms, combinations of words) in speech, incoming information is analyzed and summarized, on the one hand, and judgments and conclusions are formulated, on the other.

Therefore, speech, being a means of communication, simultaneously becomes a mechanism of intellectual activity, allowing one to perform operations of abstraction and generalization and creating the basis for categorical thinking.

We have already given a general description of speech activity and its main functions. However, human speech is characterized by the executive, or operational, side; a careful analysis of its links is as important for our purposes as an analysis of the structure of speech activity as a whole.

The first of the links in the operational, or executive, organization of speech is associated with ensuring its physical, or sound, side: sound analysis of speech, transforming a continuous stream of sounds into discrete units - phonemes based on the identification of features that play a decisive role in distinguishing the meaning of words and are not the same in different languages. We have already dwelled on the psychological characteristics of phonemes and will not return to it again. The next link in the executive side of the speech process is the lexical-semantic organization of the speech act, which consists of mastering the lexical-morphological code of the language, which ensures the transformation of images or concepts into their verbal designations. In other words, this link is inextricably linked with such functions of the word as root designation (or subject reference) and generalization, i.e. with the inclusion of the designated representation in some system of connections based on morphological or semantic characteristics.

The word is the basic unit of the executive (operational) side of the speech process. The next link in its organization is a sentence, or utterance, which can have greater or less complexity and which can turn into a detailed, coherent (narrative) speech.

An utterance presupposes not so much a process of categorical generalization behind a single word, but rather a process of transition from thought to speech, i.e., encoding the original idea into an expanded system of sentences based on objective syntactic codes of the language and, in particular, through internal speech, which has a collapsed , a predicative structure and representing a necessary link in any detailed statement (L.S. Vygotsky, 1934, 1956). A summary analysis of the speech process, summarizing a large number of psychological and psycholinguistic studies, was given by us elsewhere (see A.R. Luria “Lectures on General Psychology,” 1966 - 1970; “Main Problems of Neurolinguistics”), and we will not dwell here on it in detail.

However, the above brief description of speech activity and the identification of the main links that make up its composition are necessary in the context of this book. The fact is that with brain lesions of different localizations, the complex structure of speech activity can break down at various links and lead to various speech defects. Only a careful comparison of different forms of speech disorders with the subsequent establishment of the localization of the pathological focus can provide a difficult, but the only reliable way to resolve the issue of cerebral organization of speech activity.

Which has a social orientation. During its formation and use, an utterance is created to achieve a specific goal (communication, influence, influence, etc.). The definition of speech activity was given by many scientists and linguists. Thus, one example is the psychologist L. S. Vygotsky, who characterizes it as a process, that is, its conversion into verbal form.

In general, the structure of speech activity is as follows: it consists of speech acts based on the preparation and implementation of utterances that have different volumes and semantic load.

However, psychologists note that this structure consists of four levels. The first of these is the interaction of needs and desires, as well as motives that should influence the future utterance. That is, the indicative, first phase is aimed at determining the conditions for conducting speech activity, as well as identifying its subject and using the necessary means. The second level - planning - involves the selection and organization of means and method of its implementation. As for the third phase, which is called implementing, it can be outwardly expressed or unexpressed. At the fourth level, speech activity is controlled, and the methods of carrying out this operation are carried out in different ways. For example, during listening, the main emphasis is on the goal and setting of a certain type of listening. As for speaking, here self-control is carried out throughout the entire process.

If we consider these structural elements from the point of view of linguistics, the speech act scheme developed by R. O. Yakobson is most widely used. It consists of four main elements:

1. Addressee (the one who speaks).

2. Addressee (the one who listens).

3. Context (the situation within which the statement is made - an official setting, a lesson, a conversation between friends, etc.).

4. The essence of the transmitted information.

Speech activity can be of two types: external and internal, and these two parts exist in constant dependence and unity. So, as for the internal form, it controls the organization, planning and programming of all speech activity, and the executive elements here are those responsible for its implementation (emotions, needs, thinking, memory). The internal form is characterized by four stages: motivation, the formation of a plan, its implementation, and also the comparison of the plan itself with the resulting implementation.

Speech activity, as already noted, is bipolar, that is, its implementation becomes possible in the presence of two subjects. In the case of a one-way form of expression, when there is only an addressee or an addressee, the process will not take place. If we consider this situation from the point of view of psycholinguistics, then this is possible if a person talks to himself.

Note that the second subject, the addressee, is no less active than the first. Psychologists believe that his speech activity is called the process of “internal mental activity.”

In general, this process is considered intellectual because it is determined by its nature and subject. Thus, the role of the latter is the mental reflection in the consciousness of the individual of one or another element of the surrounding existence. Also among the characteristic features of this type of activity are the specificity of its tools, which are

Thus, it becomes clear that it is speech activity that is considered the main thing between individuals. It is simultaneously defined as the main means of communication.